The rise of liberalism in politics and philosophy provides a compelling case study of the reciprocal influence between ideas and socio-political circumstances.
Originating in England and Holland, early liberalism was characterized by a distinct set of principles: religious toleration, a non-fanatical Protestantism, a high regard for commerce and industry, and an immense respect for property rights, particularly those acquired through individual labor.
Implicitly, it championed the idea that all men are born equal, with subsequent inequalities being products of circumstance rather than inherent differences. This optimistic and energetic philosophy, representing growing forces poised for victory, aimed to liberate energies for the exciting enterprises of commerce and science, such as the East India Company and the Bank of England.
Early liberalism represented a direct opposition to everything medieval, both in philosophy and politics. Medieval theories, which had sanctioned the powers of Church and king and justified persecution, were seen as obstacles to progress. Liberals sought to put an end to political and theological strife, believing that this would free human energies for productive endeavors.
This intellectual movement, however, was not without its internal tensions. While it championed individualism in intellectual and economic matters, it was not initially emotionally or ethically self-assertive. This form of liberalism dominated the English eighteenth century, influenced the founders of the American Constitution, and inspired the French encyclopédistes. Its greatest success was arguably in America, where, unhampered by feudalism and a State Church, it became the dominant political force.
🌱 Individualism’s Evolution: From Intellect to Emotion
The concept of individualism underwent a significant evolution within the liberal tradition. While early liberalism emphasized intellectual individualism (the right to determine truth for oneself, as seen in Protestantism’s challenge to Church authority and Descartes’s “cogito”), a new movement, beginning with Rousseau, extended individualism to the realm of the passions.
This romantic turn, gaining strength from the romantic movement and the principle of nationality, made the anarchic aspects of individualism explicit. The cult of the hero, as developed by Carlyle and Nietzsche, became typical of this philosophy, emphasizing strong passions and a contempt for conventional restraints.
This emotional individualism, however, often led to paradoxical outcomes. While initially liberating, it could, when adopted in practice, lead to the despotic government of the most successful “hero,” who would then suppress the very self-assertive ethic by which he rose to power.
The first comprehensive statement of liberal philosophy is found in John Locke, arguably the most influential modern philosopher. His views, which were in harmony with the prevailing opinions of his time in England, became a source of revolutionary ardor in France, where they challenged the existing Cartesianism and regime.
Locke’s emphasis on empiricism (knowledge derived from experience), his rejection of innate ideas, and his pragmatic approach to truth (though often at the expense of logical consistency) laid the intellectual groundwork for much of subsequent British philosophy. His political doctrines, advocating for government by consent and limited power, became embedded in the American Constitution and influenced constitutional thought across Europe.
While later criticisms would highlight liberalism’s worship of property and its limitations in addressing the problems of industrial society, early liberalism, with its optimism and its commitment to individual freedom and progress, fundamentally reshaped modern thought and laid the foundations for democratic societies.
Source: Russell, Bertrand. A History of Western Philosophy. Simon and Schuster, 1945.
More Topics
- The Utilitarians: Can Happiness Be Quantified and Legislated?
- Karl Marx: The Philosopher of History, Class, and Revolution
- Bergson: The Philosopher of Life, Intuition, and Creative Evolution
- William James: Radical Empiricism and the ‘Will to Believe’
- John Dewey: Instrumentalism and the Evolution of Truth
- Locke’s Theory of Knowledge: How Did Empiricism Challenge Innate Ideas?
- Locke’s Political Philosophy: How Did He Justify Government by Consent?
