The Utilitarians, a school of thought that dominated British philosophy in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, represent a direct continuation of Locke’s empirical tradition. Led by Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832), these “Philosophical Radicals” sought to apply scientific and rational principles to ethics, law, and politics, with the ultimate goal of maximizing human happiness.
Their influence, while not primarily philosophical in a technical sense, was immense in shaping British radicalism and inadvertently laying the groundwork for socialist doctrines.
Bentham’s entire philosophy rests on two foundational principles: the “association principle” and the “greatest happiness principle.”
The association principle, drawn from the philosopher David Hartley, posits that all mental occurrences are determined by the association of ideas, a concept akin to Pavlov’s later “conditioned reflex.” This deterministic view of psychology was crucial for Bentham’s aim: to create a code of laws and a social system that would automatically guide individuals towards virtuous behavior.
His second principle, the “greatest happiness of the greatest number,” defines good as pleasure or happiness and evil as pain. Therefore, a state of affairs is better if it yields a greater balance of pleasure over pain, with the best state being that which maximizes this balance for the entire community.
⚖️ Legislating Happiness: Law and Individual Interest
Bentham believed that while each individual inherently pursues their own happiness, the role of the legislator is to create a harmony between public and private interests. Criminal law, for instance, is justified as a method of making an individual’s interest (e.g., avoiding punishment) coincide with the community’s interest (e.g., preventing crime).
He argued that punishment should be certain rather than severe, advocating for the abolition of the death penalty for most offenses. In civil law, his aims were subsistence, abundance, security, and equality. He notably omitted liberty, for which he cared little.
He famously dismissed the doctrine of the rights of man as “nonsense on stilts,” believing that such abstract rights hindered rational legislation aimed at achieving the collective good. His gradual evolution towards radicalism was driven by a belief in equality (derived from his calculus of pleasures and pains) and an unwavering commitment to reason.
Bentham’s influence was significantly amplified by James Mill (1773-1836), a fervent disciple who actively engaged in practical politics. Mill, like Bentham, believed pleasure was the only good and emphasized intellectual enjoyments as the highest form of pleasure. Both were staunchly anti-romantic, believing that politics could be governed by reason and that opinions should be determined by the weight of evidence.
James Mill’s son, John Stuart Mill (1808-1873), carried on a softened form of Benthamism. However, he later became more open to socialism and less convinced of the eternal truth of classical economics, partly influenced by his engagement with romantic poets.
While the Utilitarian system, particularly in the hands of John Stuart Mill, faced logical fallacies (e.g., inferring that something is “desirable” simply because it is “desired”), its practical impact on British legislation and policy was immense.
Bentham’s greatest contribution lay not in his theoretical originality, but in his vigorous and systematic application of the greatest happiness principle to concrete social and legal problems. This paved the way for a more rational and humane approach to governance, even as it sparked the enduring conflict between capitalism and socialism.
Source: Russell, Bertrand. A History of Western Philosophy. Simon and Schuster, 1945.
More Topics
- Karl Marx: The Philosopher of History, Class, and Revolution
- Bergson: The Philosopher of Life, Intuition, and Creative Evolution
- William James: Radical Empiricism and the ‘Will to Believe’
- John Dewey: Instrumentalism and the Evolution of Truth
- Locke’s Theory of Knowledge: How Did Empiricism Challenge Innate Ideas?
- Locke’s Political Philosophy: How Did He Justify Government by Consent?
- Schopenhauer: The Philosopher of Will, Suffering, and Pessimism
